𘬱𘬻𘭟 𘬐𘭦𘬰
Khitan
Para-Mongolic (Mongolic-Khitan branch, debated)
Khitan was the language of the Liao dynasty (907–1125 CE), spoken by the Khitan people who ruled a vast empire stretching from Manchuria to Central Asia. The Khitan developed two writing systems — the Large Script and the Small Script — both of which remain only partially deciphered, with perhaps 20% of the Small Script characters confidently read. This entry preserves only readings that are confidently attested in bilingual Liao inscriptions, Chinese transliterations of Khitan names, or the scholarly reconstructions of Kane (2009) and Aisin Gioro Ulhicun; all other entries are marked with an em-dash. Khitan numbers are the best-attested vocabulary, showing clear cognacy with Mongolian and Manchu.
Where it is spoken
Han character readings in Khitan
| Character | Meaning | Reading | Form | IPA |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 一 | one | 𘬺om | /əm/ | |
| 二 | two | jur | /dʒur/ | |
| 三 | three | gur | /ɡur/ | |
| 四 | four | dur | /dur/ | |
| 五 | five | tau | /tau/ | |
| 六 | six | nil | /nil/ | |
| 七 | seven | dalu | /dalu/ | |
| 八 | eight | naim | /naim/ | |
| 九 | nine | isen | /isen/ | |
| 十 | ten | par | /par/ | |
| 日 | sun | nair | /nair/ | |
| 月 | moon | 𘭖𘭚𘭯sair | /sair/ | |
| 山 | mountain | ula | /ʊla/ | |
| 水 | water | us | /ʊs/ | |
| 火 | fire | gal | /ɡal/ | |
| 天 | sky | teŋri | /tʰeŋri/ | |
| 馬 | horse | 𘭤𘭞morin | /morin/ | |
| 人 | person | küü | /kʰuː/ |
Sources
- Kane, Daniel. The Kitan Language and Script. Brill, 2009.
- Aisin Gioro Ulhicun (愛新覺羅·烏拉熙春). Kitan Studies. Kyoto University, 2004–2012.
- Liu Fengzhu (劉鳳翥). Qidan Wenzi Yanjiu (契丹文字研究). Zhonghua Shuju, 2014.
- Andrew West. BabelStone Khitan Script Resources. babelstone.co.uk/Khitan.
- Wu Yingzhe & Janhunen, Juha. New Materials on the Khitan Small Script. SOAS, 2010.
Words compared
Compared with related Mongolic (Para-Mongolic) languages
| Meaning | Khitan | Jurchen | Proto-Mongolic | Middle Mongol | Classical Mongolian | Kalmyk | Eastern Yugur |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Water | muri /muri/ | muke /muke/ | *usun /usun/ | ᠤᠰᠤᠨ /usun/ | ᠤᠰᠤᠨ /usun/ | усн /usn/ | ус /us/ |
| Fire | niár /niar/ | tuwa /tuwa/ | *gal /gal/ | ᠭᠠᠯ /ɣal/ | ᠭᠠᠯ /ɡal/ | гал /ɡal/ | гал /ɡal/ |
| Sun | 𘲺 /nair/ | šun /ʃun/ | *naran /naran/ | ᠨᠠᠷᠠᠨ /naran/ | ᠨᠠᠷᠠᠨ /naran/ | нарн /narn/ | нар /nar/ |
| Moon | 𘭧 /sair/ | biya /bija/ | *sara /sara/ | ᠰᠠᠷᠠ /sara/ | ᠰᠠᠷᠠ /sara/ | сар /sar/ | сар /sar/ |
| Star | od /od/ | usiha /usixa/ | *hodun /hodun/ | ᠬᠣᠳᠤᠨ /hodun/ | ᠣᠳᠣᠨ /odun/ | одн /odn/ | ходэн /χoden/ |
| Mother | eme /eme/ | eme /eme/ | *eke /eke/ | ᠡᠭᠡ /eke/ | ᠡᠬᠡ /eke/ | ээҗ /eːdʒ/ | ээж /eːʒ/ |
| Father | ai /ai/ | ama /ama/ | *ečige /ečige/ | ᠡᠴᠢᠭᠡ /etʃiɡe/ | ᠡᠴᠢᠭᠡ /etʃiɡe/ | аав /aːv/ | аава /ɑːva/ |
| I | bi /bi/ | bi /bi/ | *bi /bi/ | ᠪᠢ /bi/ | ᠪᠢ /bi/ | би /bi/ | би /bi/ |
| You | ši /ʃi/ | si /ʃi/ | *či /či/ | ᠴᠢ /tʃi/ | ᠴᠢ /tʃi/ | чи /tʃi/ | чи /tʃi/ |
| Name | niru /niru/ | gebu /gəbu/ | *nere /nere/ | ᠨᠡᠷᠡ /nere/ | ᠨᠡᠷᠡ /nere/ | нерн /nern/ | нэрэ /nere/ |
| Eye | nït /nit/ | yasa /jasa/ | *nidün /nidün/ | ᠨᠢᠳᠦᠨ /nidyn/ | ᠨᠢᠳᠦ /nidü/ | нүдн /nyˈdn̩/ | нүдэ /nʏde/ |
| Hand | ɣar /ɣar/ | gala /ɡala/ | *gar /gar/ | ᠭᠠᠷ /ɣar/ | ᠭᠠᠷ /ɡar/ | һар /ɣar/ | гар /ɡar/ |
| Heart | niyàmen /nijamen/ | niyaman /nijaman/ | *ǰirüken /ǰirüken/ | ᠵᠢᠷᠦᠭᠡ /dʒiryke/ | ᠵᠢᠷᠦᠬᠡ /dʒirüke/ | зүркн /zyrˈkən/ | зүрх /zʏrχ/ |
| Love | nasun /nasun/ | gosi /ɡosi/ | — /—/ | ᠳᠤᠷᠠ /dura/ | ᠬᠠᠶᠢᠷᠠ /xajira/ | дурлх /durlx/ | хайрлаха /χajrlaχa/ |
| Tree | mau /mau/ | mo /mo/ | *modun /modun/ | ᠮᠣᠳᠤᠨ /modun/ | ᠮᠣᠳᠤ /modu/ | модн /moˈdn̩/ | мод /mod/ |
| House | boo /boː/ | boo /boː/ | *ger /ger/ | ᠭᠡᠷ /ɡer/ | ᠭᠡᠷ /ɡer/ | гер /ɡer/ | гэр /ɡer/ |
| Dog | 𘰕𘯛 /niaqan/ | indahǔn /indahuːn/ | *nokai /nokai/ | ᠨᠣᠬᠠᠢ /noqai/ | ᠨᠣᠬᠠᠢ /noxai/ | ноха /noxa/ | нохай /noχaj/ |
| Cat | — /—/ | kesike /kesike/ | — /—/ | ᠮᠢᠭᠤᠢ /miɣui/ | ᠮᠢᠭᠤᠢ /miɣui/ | миис /miːs/ | мэшэ /meʃe/ |
| Eat | idi /idi/ | jefu /dʒefu/ | *ide- /ide-/ | ᠢᠳᠡ /ide/ | ᠢᠳᠡ- /ide-/ | иде /ide/ | идэхэ /ɪdeχe/ |
| Drink | umi /umi/ | omi /omi/ | *uu- /uu-/ | ᠤᠭᠤ /uɣu/ | ᠤᠭᠤ- /uɣu-/ | уу /uː/ | ухаха /uχaχa/ |
| One | 𘬣 /omsu/ | emu /emu/ | *nigen /nigen/ | ᠨᠢᠭᠡᠨ /niɡen/ | ᠨᠢᠭᠡᠨ /niɡen/ | негн /neɡn/ | нэг /neɡ/ |
| Two | jur /dʒuːr/ | juwe /dʑuwə/ | *koyar /koyar/ | ᠬᠣᠶᠠᠷ /qojar/ | ᠬᠣᠶᠠᠷ /qojar/ | хойр /xojr/ | гоор /ɣoːr/ |
| Hello | — /—/ | — /—/ | — /—/ | ᠠᠮᠤᠷ /amur/ | ᠰᠠᠶᠢᠨ ᠤᠤ /sajin uu/ | менд /mend/ | сайнар уу /sajnar uː/ |
| Thank you | — /—/ | — /—/ | — /—/ | ᠪᠠᠶᠠᠷᠯᠠᠪᠠ /bajarlaba/ | ᠪᠠᠶᠠᠷᠯᠠᠯᠠ /bajarlala/ | ханҗанав /xandʒanav/ | баярлалаа /bajarlalaː/ |
| Good | sayïn /sajin/ | sain /sain/ | *sajin /sajin/ | ᠰᠠᠶᠢᠨ /sain/ | ᠰᠠᠶᠢᠨ /sajin/ | сән /sæn/ | сайн /sajn/ |
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Han readings compared
Compared with related Para-Mongolic (Mongolic-Khitan branch, debated) languages
| Character | Khitan | Proto-Mongolic | Sibe | Proto-Tungusic | Manchu | Jurchen | Yuan Phags-pa Chinese |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 一 | om /əm/ | *nigen /*niɡen/ | emu /əmu/ | *əmun /*əmun/ | emu /emu/ | emu /emu/ | ʔi /ʔi/ |
| 二 | jur /dʒur/ | *qoyar /*qojar/ | juwe /dʑuwə/ | *dʒuər /*dʒuər/ | juwe /dʒuwə/ | juwe /dʑuwe/ | ʐɨ /ʐɨ/ |
| 三 | gur /ɡur/ | *gurba(n) /*gurban/ | ilan /ilan/ | *ilan /*ilan/ | ilan /ilan/ | ilan /ilan/ | sam /sam/ |
| 四 | dur /dur/ | *dörbe(n) /*dœrben/ | duin /duin/ | *dügin /*dyɡin/ | duin /duin/ | duin /duin/ | sɿ /sɿ/ |
| 五 | tau /tau/ | *tabu(n) /*tabun/ | sunja /sundʑa/ | *tuɲga /*tuɲɡa/ | sunja /sundʒa/ | sunja /sundʑa/ | ʔu /ʔu/ |
| 六 | nil /nil/ | *jirguɣa(n) /*dʒirɣuɣan/ | ninggun /niŋɢun/ | *ɲuŋun /*ɲuŋun/ | ninggun /niŋɡun/ | ninggun /niŋɡun/ | liw /liw/ |
| 七 | dalu /dalu/ | *doluɣa(n) /*doluɣan/ | nadan /nadan/ | *nadan /*nadan/ | nadan /nadan/ | nadan /nadan/ | tshi /tsʰi/ |
| 八 | naim /naim/ | *nayima(n) /*najiman/ | jakūn /dʑakɯn/ | *dʒapkun /*dʒapkun/ | jakūn /dʒakʰuːn/ | jakūn /dʑakɯn/ | ba /pa/ |
| 九 | isen /isen/ | *yersü(n) /*jersyn/ | uyun /ujun/ | *xəgün /*xəɡyn/ | uyun /ujun/ | uyun /ujun/ | kiw /kiw/ |
| 十 | par /par/ | *harba(n) /*harban/ | juwan /dʑuwan/ | *dʒuwan /*dʒuwan/ | juwan /dʒuwan/ | juwan /dʑuwan/ | ši /ʂɨ/ |
| 日 | nair /nair/ | *naran /*naran/ | šun /ɕun/ | *siun /*siun/ | šun /ʃun/ | šun /ʃun/ | ʐɨ /ʐɨ/ |
| 月 | sair /sair/ | *sara(n) /*saran/ | biya /bija/ | *bēga /*beːɡa/ | biya /bija/ | biya /bija/ | ʔɥe /ʔɥe/ |
| 山 | ula /ʊla/ | *agula /*aɣula/ | alin /alin/ | *xada /*xada/ | alin /alin/ | alin /alin/ | šan /ʂan/ |
| 水 | us /ʊs/ | *usu(n) /*usun/ | muke /mutɕə/ | *mū /*muː/ | muke /mukə/ | muke /muke/ | šwi /ʂwi/ |
| 火 | gal /ɡal/ | *gal /*ɡal/ | tuwa /tuwa/ | *tōga /*toːɡa/ | tuwa /tuwa/ | tuwa /tuwa/ | xwo /xwɔ/ |
| 天 | teŋri /tʰeŋri/ | *teŋri /*teŋri/ | abka /apka/ | *abka /*abka/ | abka /abka/ | abka /abka/ | thẽn /tʰjɛn/ |
| 馬 | morin /morin/ | *mori(n) /*morin/ | morin /mɔrin/ | *murin /*murin/ | morin /morin/ | morin /morin/ | ma /ma/ |
| 人 | küü /kʰuː/ | *kümün /*kymyn/ | niyalma /ɲalma/ | *niama /*niama/ | niyalma /njalma/ | niyalma /njalma/ | ʐin /ʐin/ |
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