ツングース祖語
Proto-Tungusic
Tungusic (proto)
Proto-Tungusic is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Tungusic language family, which includes Manchu, Jurchen, Sibe, Evenki, Even, Nanai, Udege, Oroch, Orok, and Ulch. Spoken roughly around 2000 BCE in the Amur basin and surrounding Manchurian and southeastern Siberian regions, it later diversified into the Northern (Evenkic) and Southern (Manchu-Nanai) branches. Reconstructions are based on systematic comparison of attested daughter languages, with major scholarly contributions from Tsintsius (1975-77), Doerfer (2006), and Janhunen (2003). Phonologically, Proto-Tungusic featured vowel harmony, a contrast between plain and long vowels, and a relatively rich consonant inventory including the velar nasal *ŋ. Lexical reconstructions for numerals (*əmun, *dʒuər, *ilan), body parts (*ŋāla 'hand', *jāsa 'eye'), and natural elements (*mū 'water', *tōga 'fire') are well established, while fauna terms vary by branch.
Where it is spoken
Han character readings in Proto-Tungusic
| Character | Meaning | Reading | Form | IPA |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 一 | one | *əmun | /*əmun/ | |
| 二 | two | *dʒuər | /*d͡ʒuər/ | |
| 三 | three | *ilan | /*ilan/ | |
| 四 | four | *dügin | /*dyɡin/ | |
| 五 | five | *tuɲga | /*tuɲɡa/ | |
| 六 | six | *ɲuŋun | /*ɲuŋun/ | |
| 七 | seven | *nadan | /*nadan/ | |
| 八 | eight | *dʒapkun | /*d͡ʒapkun/ | |
| 九 | nine | *xəgün | /*xəɡyn/ | |
| 十 | ten | *dʒuwan | /*d͡ʒuwan/ | |
| 日 | sun | *siun | /*siun/ | |
| 月 | moon | *bēga | /*beːɡa/ | |
| 山 | mountain | *xada | /*xada/ | |
| 水 | water | *mū | /*muː/ | |
| 火 | fire | *tōga | /*toːɡa/ | |
| 木 | tree | *mō | /*moː/ | |
| 土 | soil | *na | /*na/ | |
| 天 | sky | *abka | /*abka/ | |
| 地 | ground | *na | /*na/ | |
| 海 | sea | *lāmu | /*laːmu/ | |
| 犬 | dog | *ŋinda | /*ŋinda/ | |
| 馬 | horse | *murin | /*murin/ | |
| 鳥 | bird | *gasa | /*ɡasa/ | |
| 魚 | fish | *nimaka | /*nimaka/ | |
| 牛 | ox | *xuker | /*xuker/ | |
| 人 | person | *niama | /*niama/ | |
| 手 | hand | *ŋāla | /*ŋaːla/ | |
| 足 | foot | *bəgdi | /*bəɡdi/ | |
| 目 | eye | *jāsa | /*jaːsa/ | |
| 耳 | ear | *sēn | /*seːn/ | |
| 口 | mouth | *amŋa | /*amŋa/ | |
| 頭 | head | *dil | /*dil/ | |
| 心 | heart | *mēwan | /*meːwan/ | |
| 血 | blood | *sēksə | /*seːksə/ | |
| 肉 | meat | *uldʒə | /*uld͡ʒə/ | |
| 上 | up | *ugi | /*uɡi/ | |
| 下 | down | *xərgi | /*xərɡi/ | |
| 中 | middle | *dulin | /*dulin/ | |
| 中 | hit | *dulin | /*dulin/ | |
| 央 | center | *dulin | /*dulin/ | |
| 左 | left | *dʒəgün | /*d͡ʒəɡyn/ | |
| 右 | right | *aŋān | /*aŋaːn/ | |
| 行 | go | *jabu- | /*jabu-/ | |
| 行 | row | *ŋənə- | /*ŋənə-/ | |
| 来 | come | *əmə- | /*əmə-/ | |
| 去 | leave | *ŋənə- | /*ŋənə-/ | |
| 見 | see | *ičə- | /*it͡ʃə-/ | |
| 聞 | hear | *dōldi- | /*doːldi-/ | |
| 食 | eat | *dʒəp- | /*d͡ʒəp-/ | |
| 飲 | drink | *umī- | /*umiː-/ | |
| 走 | run | *tuksa- | /*tuksa-/ | |
| 坐 | sit | *təgə- | /*təɡə-/ | |
| 立 | stand | *ili- | /*ili-/ |
Sources
- Tsintsius 1975
- Doerfer 2006
- Janhunen 2003
Han readings compared
Compared with related Tungusic (proto) languages
| Character | Proto-Tungusic | Jurchen | Manchu | Proto-Mongolic | Sibe | Proto-Japonic | Proto-Koreanic |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 一 | *əmun /*əmun/ | emu /emu/ | emu /emu/ | *nigen /*niɡen/ | emu /əmu/ | *pitə-tu /*pitə-tu/ | *hʌtan /*hʌtan/ |
| 二 | *dʒuər /*d͡ʒuər/ | juwe /dʑuwe/ | juwe /d͡ʒuwə/ | *qoyar /*qojar/ | juwe /d͡ʑuwə/ | *puta /*puta/ | *tupɨr /*tupɨɾ/ |
| 三 | *ilan /*ilan/ | ilan /ilan/ | ilan /ilan/ | *gurba(n) /*gurban/ | ilan /ilan/ | *mi /*mi/ | *seki /*seki/ |
| 四 | *dügin /*dyɡin/ | duin /duin/ | duin /duin/ | *dörbe(n) /*dœrben/ | duin /duin/ | *jə /*jə/ | *neki /*neki/ |
| 五 | *tuɲga /*tuɲɡa/ | sunja /sundʑa/ | sunja /sund͡ʒa/ | *tabu(n) /*tabun/ | sunja /sund͡ʑa/ | *itu /*itu/ | *tasəs /*tasəs/ |
| 六 | *ɲuŋun /*ɲuŋun/ | ninggun /niŋɡun/ | ninggun /niŋɡun/ | *jirguɣa(n) /*dʒirɣuɣan/ | ninggun /niŋɢun/ | *mu /*mu/ | *jəsəs /*jəsəs/ |
| 七 | *nadan /*nadan/ | nadan /nadan/ | nadan /nadan/ | *doluɣa(n) /*doluɣan/ | nadan /nadan/ | *nana /*nana/ | *nirkup /*niɾkup/ |
| 八 | *dʒapkun /*d͡ʒapkun/ | jakūn /dʑakɯn/ | jakūn /d͡ʒakʰuːn/ | *nayima(n) /*najiman/ | jakūn /d͡ʑaqun/ | *ja /*ja/ | *jətərp /*jətəɾp/ |
| 九 | *xəgün /*xəɡyn/ | uyun /ujun/ | uyun /ujun/ | *yersü(n) /*jersyn/ | uyun /ujun/ | *kəkənə /*kəkənə/ | *ahop /*ahop/ |
| 十 | *dʒuwan /*d͡ʒuwan/ | juwan /dʑuwan/ | juwan /d͡ʒuwan/ | *harba(n) /*harban/ | juwan /d͡ʑuwan/ | *təwə /*təwə/ | *jer /*jeɾ/ |
| 日 | *siun /*siun/ | šun /ʃun/ | šun /ʃun/ | *naran /*naran/ | šun /ɕun/ | *pi /*pi/ | *hʌy /*hʌj/ |
| 月 | *bēga /*beːɡa/ | biya /bija/ | biya /bija/ | *sara(n) /*saran/ | biya /bija/ | *tukuy /*tukui/ | *tʌr /*tʌɾ/ |
| 山 | *xada /*xada/ | alin /alin/ | alin /alin/ | *agula /*aɣula/ | alin /alin/ | *jama /*jama/ | *moy /*moj/ |
| 水 | *mū /*muː/ | muke /muke/ | muke /mukə/ | *usu(n) /*usun/ | muke /mutɕə/ | *mintu /*mintu/ | *mɨr /*mɨɾ/ |
| 火 | *tōga /*toːɡa/ | tuwa /tuwa/ | tuwa /tuwa/ | *gal /*ɡal/ | tuwa /tuwa/ | *poy /*poi/ | *pɨr /*pɨɾ/ |
| 木 | *mō /*moː/ | moo /moː/ | moo /moː/ | *modu(n) /*modun/ | moo /mɔː/ | *kəy /*kəi/ | *namk /*namk/ |
| 土 | *na /*na/ | boihon /boixon/ | boihon /bojxon/ | *sirui /*siruj/ | boihon /bɔiʁɔn/ | *tuti /*tuti/ | *hʌrk /*hʌɾk/ |
| 天 | *abka /*abka/ | abka /abka/ | abka /abka/ | *teŋri /*teŋri/ | abka /apqa/ | *ama /*ama/ | *hanʌr /*hanʌɾ/ |
| 地 | *na /*na/ | na /na/ | na /na/ | *gajar /*ɡadʒar/ | na /na/ | — | *tʌh /*tʌh/ |
| 海 | *lāmu /*laːmu/ | mederi /mederi/ | mederi /medəri/ | *dalai /*dalaj/ | mederi /mədəri/ | *umi /*umi/ | *parʌr /*paɾʌɾ/ |
| 犬 | *ŋinda /*ŋinda/ | indahūn /indaxɯn/ | indahūn /indaxuːn/ | *noxai /*noxaj/ | indahūn /indaʁun/ | *enu /*enu/ | *kahi /*kahi/ |
| 馬 | *murin /*murin/ | morin /morin/ | morin /morin/ | *mori(n) /*morin/ | morin /mɔrin/ | — | — |
| 鳥 | *gasa /*ɡasa/ | gasha /ɡaʃa/ | gasha /ɡaʃa/ | *sibawun /*sibaʊn/ | gasha /ɢaɕa/ | *təri /*təri/ | *say /*saj/ |
| 魚 | *nimaka /*nimaka/ | nimaha /nimaxa/ | nimaha /nimaxa/ | *jigasu(n) /*dʒiɣasun/ | nimaha /nimaʁa/ | *iwo /*iwo/ | *koki /*koki/ |
| 牛 | *xuker /*xuker/ | ihan /ixan/ | ihan /ixan/ | *hüker /*hyker/ | ihan /iʁan/ | *usi /*usi/ | *sjo /*sjo/ |
| 人 | *niama /*niama/ | niyalma /nialma/ | niyalma /njalma/ | *kümün /*kymyn/ | niyalma /ɲalma/ | *pitə /*pitə/ | *salʌm /*salʌm/ |
| 手 | *ŋāla /*ŋaːla/ | gala /ɡala/ | gala /ɡala/ | *gar /*ɡar/ | gala /ɢala/ | *ta /*ta/ | *son /*son/ |
| 足 | *bəgdi /*bəɡdi/ | bethe /betxe/ | bethe /bətxə/ | *köl /*kœl/ | bethe /bətxə/ | *asi /*asi/ | *par /*paɾ/ |
| 目 | *jāsa /*jaːsa/ | yasa /jasa/ | yasa /jasa/ | *nidün /*nidyn/ | yasa /jaza/ | *ma /*ma/ | *nun /*nun/ |
| 耳 | *sēn /*seːn/ | šan /ʃan/ | šan /ʃan/ | *cikin /*tʃikin/ | šan /ɕan/ | *mimi /*mimi/ | *kuy /*kuj/ |
| 口 | *amŋa /*amŋa/ | angga /aŋɡa/ | angga /aŋɡa/ | *aman /*aman/ | angga /aŋɢa/ | *kutuy /*kutui/ | *ip /*ip/ |
| 頭 | *dil /*dil/ | uju /udʑu/ | uju /ud͡ʒu/ | *terixün /*terixyn/ | uju /ud͡ʑu/ | *kasira /*kasira/ | *məri /*məɾi/ |
| 心 | *mēwan /*meːwan/ | niyaman /niaman/ | niyaman /njaman/ | *jirüken /*dʒiryken/ | niyaman /ɲaman/ | *kəkərə /*kəkərə/ | *mʌzʌm /*mʌzʌm/ |
| 血 | *sēksə /*seːksə/ | senggi /səŋɡi/ | senggi /səŋɡi/ | *cisu(n) /*tʃisun/ | senggi /səŋɣi/ | *ti /*ti/ | *pih /*pih/ |
| 肉 | *uldʒə /*uld͡ʒə/ | yali /jali/ | yali /jali/ | *mika(n) /*mikan/ | yali /jali/ | *sisi /*sisi/ | *salh /*salh/ |
| 上 | *ugi /*uɡi/ | dele /dələ/ | dele /dələ/ | *degere /*deɡere/ | dele /dələ/ | *upəy /*upəi/ | *uh /*uh/ |
| 下 | *xərgi /*xərɡi/ | fejile /fəjilə/ | fejile /fəd͡ʒilə/ | *doxora /*doxora/ | fejile /fəd͡ʑilə/ | *sita /*sita/ | *arʌy /*aɾʌj/ |
| 中 | *dulin /*dulin/ | dulin /dulin/ | dulimba /dulimba/ | *dumda /*dumda/ | dulimba /dulimba/ | *naka /*naka/ | *kawɨn /*kawɨn/ |
| 中 | *dulin /*dulin/ | — | goibumbi /ɡoibumbi/ | *dumda /*dumda/ | goibumbi /ɢɔibum/ | *atar- /*atar-/ | *mac- /*mat͡s-/ |
| 央 | *dulin /*dulin/ | dulimbai /dulimbai/ | dulimbai /dulimbai/ | — | dulimbai /dulimbai/ | — | — |
| 左 | *dʒəgün /*d͡ʒəɡyn/ | hashū /haʃɯ/ | hashū /xaʃuː/ | *jegün /*dʒeɡyn/ | hashū /χaɕu/ | *pintari /*pintari/ | *oyn /*ojn/ |
| 右 | *aŋān /*aŋaːn/ | ici /itɕi/ | ici /it͡ʃi/ | *baragun /*baraɣun/ | ici /it͡ɕi/ | *minkiri /*minkiri/ | *parʌn /*paɾʌn/ |
| 行 | *jabu- /*jabu-/ | yabu- /jabu-/ | yabumbi /jabumbi/ | *yabu- /*jabu-/ | yabumbi /jawum/ | *ik- /*ik-/ | *ka- /*ka-/ |
| 行 | *ŋənə- /*ŋənə-/ | — | faidan /faidan/ | *yabu- /*jabu-/ | faidan /faidan/ | *okonap- /*okonap-/ | *hʌ- /*hʌ-/ |
| 来 | *əmə- /*əmə-/ | ji- /dʑi-/ | jimbi /d͡ʒimbi/ | *ire- /*ire-/ | jimbi /d͡ʑim/ | *kə- /*kə-/ | *o- /*o-/ |
| 去 | *ŋənə- /*ŋənə-/ | gene- /ɡənə-/ | genembi /ɡənəmbi/ | *od- /*od-/ | genembi /ɡənəm/ | — | *ka- /*ka-/ |
| 見 | *ičə- /*it͡ʃə-/ | sabu- /sabu-/ | sabumbi /sabumbi/ | *üje- /*ydʒe-/ | sabumbi /sabum/ | *mi- /*mi-/ | *po- /*po-/ |
| 聞 | *dōldi- /*doːldi-/ | donji- /dondʑi-/ | donjimbi /dond͡ʒimbi/ | *sonos- /*sonos-/ | donjimbi /dɔnd͡ʑim/ | *kik- /*kik-/ | *tɨr- /*tɨɾ-/ |
| 食 | *dʒəp- /*d͡ʒəp-/ | je- /dʑe-/ | jembi /d͡ʒəmbi/ | *ide- /*ide-/ | jembi /d͡ʑəm/ | *kup- /*kup-/ | *mək- /*mək-/ |
| 飲 | *umī- /*umiː-/ | omi- /omi-/ | omimbi /omimbi/ | *uxu- /*uxu-/ | omimbi /ɔmim/ | *nəm- /*nəm-/ | *mas- /*mas-/ |
| 走 | *tuksa- /*tuksa-/ | suju- /sudʑu-/ | sujumbi /sud͡ʒumbi/ | *güyü- /*ɡyjy-/ | sujumbi /sud͡ʑum/ | *pasir- /*pasir-/ | *tʌt- /*tʌt-/ |
| 坐 | *təgə- /*təɡə-/ | te- /te-/ | tembi /təmbi/ | *saxu- /*saxu-/ | tembi /təm/ | — | *anc- /*ant͡s-/ |
| 立 | *ili- /*ili-/ | ili- /ili-/ | ilimbi /ilimbi/ | *bos- /*bos-/ | ilimbi /ilim/ | *tat- /*tat-/ | *se- /*se-/ |
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