日本祖語
Proto-Japonic
Japonic (proto)
Proto-Japonic is the reconstructed common ancestor of all Japonic languages, including Old Japanese and Proto-Ryukyuan. It is dated to roughly 1000 BCE to 300 CE, before the rise of the Yamato polity, and is thought to have arrived in the archipelago from the Korean peninsula with the Yayoi wet-rice culture. The standard reconstruction (Frellesvig & Whitman 2008) posits a six-vowel system *a *i *e *ə *o *u, with secondary diphthongs *ui, *əi explaining the eight-vowel distinctions of Old Japanese. Starred forms here follow Frellesvig & Whitman; many lexical items remain unattested or contested.
Where it is spoken
Han character readings in Proto-Japonic
| Character | Meaning | Reading | Form | IPA |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 一 | one | *pitə-tu | /*pitə-tu/ | |
| 二 | two | *puta | /*puta/ | |
| 三 | three | *mi | /*mi/ | |
| 四 | four | *jə | /*jə/ | |
| 五 | five | *itu | /*itu/ | |
| 六 | six | *mu | /*mu/ | |
| 七 | seven | *nana | /*nana/ | |
| 八 | eight | *ja | /*ja/ | |
| 九 | nine | *kəkənə | /*kəkənə/ | |
| 十 | ten | *təwə | /*təwə/ | |
| 日 | sun | *pi | /*pi/ | |
| 月 | moon | *tukuy | /*tukui/ | |
| 山 | mountain | *jama | /*jama/ | |
| 水 | water | *mintu | /*mintu/ | |
| 火 | fire | *poy | /*poi/ | |
| 木 | tree | *kəy | /*kəi/ | |
| 土 | soil | *tuti | /*tuti/ | |
| 天 | sky | *ama | /*ama/ | |
| 海 | sea | *umi | /*umi/ | |
| 犬 | dog | *enu | /*enu/ | |
| 鳥 | bird | *təri | /*təri/ | |
| 魚 | fish | *iwo | /*iwo/ | |
| 牛 | ox | *usi | /*usi/ | |
| 人 | person | *pitə | /*pitə/ | |
| 手 | hand | *ta | /*ta/ | |
| 足 | foot | *asi | /*asi/ | |
| 目 | eye | *ma | /*ma/ | |
| 耳 | ear | *mimi | /*mimi/ | |
| 口 | mouth | *kutuy | /*kutui/ | |
| 頭 | head | *kasira | /*kasira/ | |
| 心 | heart | *kəkərə | /*kəkərə/ | |
| 血 | blood | *ti | /*ti/ | |
| 肉 | meat | *sisi | /*sisi/ | |
| 上 | up | *upəy | /*upəi/ | |
| 下 | down | *sita | /*sita/ | |
| 中 | middle | *naka | /*naka/ | |
| 中 | hit | *atar- | /*atar-/ | |
| 左 | left | *pintari | /*pintari/ | |
| 右 | right | *minkiri | /*minkiri/ | |
| 東 | east | *pinkasi | /*pinkasi/ | |
| 西 | west | *nisi | /*nisi/ | |
| 南 | south | *minami | /*minami/ | |
| 北 | north | *kita | /*kita/ | |
| 行 | go | *ik- | /*ik-/ | |
| 行 | row | *okonap- | /*okonap-/ | |
| 来 | come | *kə- | /*kə-/ | |
| 見 | see | *mi- | /*mi-/ | |
| 聞 | hear | *kik- | /*kik-/ | |
| 食 | eat | *kup- | /*kup-/ | |
| 飲 | drink | *nəm- | /*nəm-/ | |
| 走 | run | *pasir- | /*pasir-/ | |
| 立 | stand | *tat- | /*tat-/ |
Sources
- Frellesvig & Whitman 2008
- Vovin 2010
- Pellard 2015
Han readings compared
Compared with related Japonic (proto) languages
| Character | Proto-Japonic | Japanese kun-yomi | Proto-Tungusic | Proto-Koreanic | Proto-Mongolic | Proto-Tibeto-Burman | Proto-Hmong-Mien |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 一 | *pitə-tu /*pitə-tu/ | hito /çito/ | *əmun /*əmun/ | *hʌtan /*hʌtan/ | *nigen /*niɡen/ | — | *ʔɨ /*ʔɨ/ |
| 二 | *puta /*puta/ | futa /ɸɯta/ | *dʒuər /*d͡ʒuər/ | *tupɨr /*tupɨɾ/ | *qoyar /*qojar/ | *g-nis /*g-nis/ | *ʔu̯i /*ʔu̯i/ |
| 三 | *mi /*mi/ | mi /mi/ | *ilan /*ilan/ | *seki /*seki/ | *gurba(n) /*gurban/ | *g-sum /*g-sum/ | *pjɔu /*pjɔu/ |
| 四 | *jə /*jə/ | yo /jo/ | *dügin /*dyɡin/ | *neki /*neki/ | *dörbe(n) /*dœrben/ | *b-ləy /*b-ləy/ | *plei /*plei/ |
| 五 | *itu /*itu/ | itsu /it͡sɯ/ | *tuɲga /*tuɲɡa/ | *tasəs /*tasəs/ | *tabu(n) /*tabun/ | b- 形*b-ŋa /*b-ŋa/l- 形*l-ŋa /*l-ŋa/ | *prja /*prja/ |
| 六 | *mu /*mu/ | mu /mɯ/ | *ɲuŋun /*ɲuŋun/ | *jəsəs /*jəsəs/ | *jirguɣa(n) /*dʒirɣuɣan/ | *d-k-ruk /*d-k-ruk/ | *kruk /*kruk/ |
| 七 | *nana /*nana/ | nana /nana/ | *nadan /*nadan/ | *nirkup /*niɾkup/ | *doluɣa(n) /*doluɣan/ | — | — |
| 八 | *ja /*ja/ | ya /ja/ | *dʒapkun /*d͡ʒapkun/ | *jətərp /*jətəɾp/ | *nayima(n) /*najiman/ | *b-r-gyat 形*b-r-gyat /*b-r-gyat/*b-g-ryat 形*b-g-ryat /*b-g-ryat/ | — |
| 九 | *kəkənə /*kəkənə/ | kokono /kokono/ | *xəgün /*xəɡyn/ | *ahop /*ahop/ | *yersü(n) /*jersyn/ | *d-kəw /*d-kəw/ | *N-ɟuə̯X /*N-ɟuə̯X/ |
| 十 | *təwə /*təwə/ | tō /toː/ | *dʒuwan /*d͡ʒuwan/ | *jer /*jeɾ/ | *harba(n) /*harban/ | — | *gju̯əpD /*gju̯əpD/ |
| 日 | *pi /*pi/ | hi /çi/ | *siun /*siun/ | *hʌy /*hʌj/ | *naran /*naran/ | *nəy /*nəy/ | *hnu̯ɔiA /*hnu̯ɔiA/ |
| 月 | *tukuy /*tukui/ | tsuki /t͡sɯki/ | *bēga /*beːɡa/ | *tʌr /*tʌɾ/ | *sara(n) /*saran/ | s- 形*s-la /*s-la/g- 形*g-la /*g-la/ | *hlaH /*hlaH/ |
| 山 | *jama /*jama/ | yama /jama/ | *xada /*xada/ | *moy /*moj/ | *agula /*aɣula/ | *r-i /*r-i/ | — |
| 水 | *mintu /*mintu/ | mizu /midzɯ/ | *mū /*muː/ | *mɨr /*mɨɾ/ | *usu(n) /*usun/ | — | *ʔu̯əm /*ʔu̯əm/ |
| 火 | *poy /*poi/ | hi /çi/ | *tōga /*toːɡa/ | *pɨr /*pɨɾ/ | *gal /*ɡal/ | *mey /*mey/ | — |
| 木 | *kəy /*kəi/ | ki /ki/ | *mō /*moː/ | *namk /*namk/ | *modu(n) /*modun/ | — | *ntju̯əŋH /*ntju̯əŋH/ |
| 土 | *tuti /*tuti/ | tsuchi /t͡sɯt͡ɕi/ | *na /*na/ | *hʌrk /*hʌɾk/ | *sirui /*siruj/ | — | — |
| 天 | *ama /*ama/ | ame /ame/ | *abka /*abka/ | *hanʌr /*hanʌɾ/ | *teŋri /*teŋri/ | — | — |
| 海 | *umi /*umi/ | umi /ɯmi/ | *lāmu /*laːmu/ | *parʌr /*paɾʌɾ/ | *dalai /*dalaj/ | — | — |
| 犬 | *enu /*enu/ | inu /inɯ/ | *ŋinda /*ŋinda/ | *kahi /*kahi/ | *noxai /*noxaj/ | *kʷəy /*kʷəy/ | *qluwX /*qluwX/ |
| 鳥 | *təri /*təri/ | tori /toɾi/ | *gasa /*ɡasa/ | *say /*saj/ | *sibawun /*sibaʊn/ | — | *m-nɔk /*m-nɔk/ |
| 魚 | *iwo /*iwo/ | sakana /sakana/ | *nimaka /*nimaka/ | *koki /*koki/ | *jigasu(n) /*dʒiɣasun/ | *ŋ(y)a /*ŋ(y)a/ | *mbrəuX /*mbrəuX/ |
| 牛 | *usi /*usi/ | ushi /ɯɕi/ | *xuker /*xuker/ | *sjo /*sjo/ | *hüker /*hyker/ | — | — |
| 人 | *pitə /*pitə/ | hito /çito/ | *niama /*niama/ | *salʌm /*salʌm/ | *kümün /*kymyn/ | *r-mi(y) /*r-mi(y)/ | *lan /*ʔja/ |
| 手 | *ta /*ta/ | te /te/ | *ŋāla /*ŋaːla/ | *son /*son/ | *gar /*ɡar/ | l- 形*l(y)ak /*l(y)ak/d- 形*dyak /*dyak/ | — |
| 足 | *asi /*asi/ | ashi /aɕi/ | *bəgdi /*bəɡdi/ | *par /*paɾ/ | *köl /*kœl/ | — | — |
| 目 | *ma /*ma/ | me /me/ | *jāsa /*jaːsa/ | *nun /*nun/ | *nidün /*nidyn/ | *s-mik 形*s-mik /*s-mik/*s-myak 形*s-myak /*s-myak/ | — |
| 耳 | *mimi /*mimi/ | mimi /mimi/ | *sēn /*seːn/ | *kuy /*kuj/ | *cikin /*tʃikin/ | *r-na /*r-na/ | — |
| 口 | *kutuy /*kutui/ | kuchi /kɯt͡ɕi/ | *amŋa /*amŋa/ | *ip /*ip/ | *aman /*aman/ | — | — |
| 頭 | *kasira /*kasira/ | atama /atama/ | *dil /*dil/ | *məri /*məɾi/ | *terixün /*terixyn/ | — | *S-phreiX /*S-phreiX/ |
| 心 | *kəkərə /*kəkərə/ | kokoro /kokoɾo/ | *mēwan /*meːwan/ | *mʌzʌm /*mʌzʌm/ | *jirüken /*dʒiryken/ | — | — |
| 血 | *ti /*ti/ | chi /t͡ɕi/ | *sēksə /*seːksə/ | *pih /*pih/ | *cisu(n) /*tʃisun/ | *s-hywəy /*s-hywəy/ | *ntshjamX /*ntshjamX/ |
| 肉 | *sisi /*sisi/ | — | *uldʒə /*uld͡ʒə/ | *salh /*salh/ | *mika(n) /*mikan/ | *sya /*sya/ | — |
| 上 | *upəy /*upəi/ | ue /ɯe/ | *ugi /*uɡi/ | *uh /*uh/ | *degere /*deɡere/ | — | — |
| 下 | *sita /*sita/ | shita /ɕita/ | *xərgi /*xərɡi/ | *arʌy /*aɾʌj/ | *doxora /*doxora/ | — | — |
| 中 | *naka /*naka/ | naka /naka/ | *dulin /*dulin/ | *kawɨn /*kawɨn/ | *dumda /*dumda/ | — | — |
| 中 | *atar- /*atar-/ | ataru /ataɾɯ/ | *dulin /*dulin/ | *mac- /*mat͡s-/ | *dumda /*dumda/ | — | — |
| 左 | *pintari /*pintari/ | hidari /çidaɾi/ | *dʒəgün /*d͡ʒəɡyn/ | *oyn /*ojn/ | *jegün /*dʒeɡyn/ | — | — |
| 右 | *minkiri /*minkiri/ | migi /migi/ | *aŋān /*aŋaːn/ | *parʌn /*paɾʌn/ | *baragun /*baraɣun/ | — | — |
| 東 | *pinkasi /*pinkasi/ | higashi /çigaɕi/ | — | — | *jegün /*dʒeɡyn/ | — | — |
| 西 | *nisi /*nisi/ | nishi /niɕi/ | — | — | *baragun /*baraɣun/ | — | — |
| 南 | *minami /*minami/ | minami /minami/ | — | — | *emüne /*emyne/ | — | — |
| 北 | *kita /*kita/ | kita /kita/ | — | — | *hoyitu /*hojitu/ | — | — |
| 行 | *ik- /*ik-/ | iku /ikɯ/ | *jabu- /*jabu-/ | *ka- /*ka-/ | *yabu- /*jabu-/ | — | — |
| 行 | *okonap- /*okonap-/ | — | *ŋənə- /*ŋənə-/ | *hʌ- /*hʌ-/ | *yabu- /*jabu-/ | — | — |
| 来 | *kə- /*kə-/ | kuru /kɯɾɯ/ | *əmə- /*əmə-/ | *o- /*o-/ | *ire- /*ire-/ | — | — |
| 見 | *mi- /*mi-/ | miru /miɾɯ/ | *ičə- /*it͡ʃə-/ | *po- /*po-/ | *üje- /*ydʒe-/ | — | — |
| 聞 | *kik- /*kik-/ | kiku /kikɯ/ | *dōldi- /*doːldi-/ | *tɨr- /*tɨɾ-/ | *sonos- /*sonos-/ | — | — |
| 食 | *kup- /*kup-/ | kuu /kɯɯ/ | *dʒəp- /*d͡ʒəp-/ | *mək- /*mək-/ | *ide- /*ide-/ | *dzya /*dzya/ | — |
| 飲 | *nəm- /*nəm-/ | nomu /nomɯ/ | *umī- /*umiː-/ | *mas- /*mas-/ | *uxu- /*uxu-/ | — | — |
| 走 | *pasir- /*pasir-/ | hashiru /haɕiɾɯ/ | *tuksa- /*tuksa-/ | *tʌt- /*tʌt-/ | *güyü- /*ɡyjy-/ | — | — |
| 立 | *tat- /*tat-/ | tatsu /tat͡sɯ/ | *ili- /*ili-/ | *se- /*se-/ | *bos- /*bos-/ | — | — |
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